Oxytocin where to get

They also had higher levels of oxytocin. While musical taste can vary widely from person to person, most people enjoy listening to some type of music. You probably listen to music because you enjoy it, but you might have noticed it has other benefits , like improving your mood, focus, and motivation. It also seems to help improve the ability to create social bonds — an effect also associated with oxytocin.

Research is still limited, but a few small studies have found evidence to suggest music can help boost oxytocin levels in your body:. Love a good massage? A study looking at 95 adults found evidence to suggest 15 minutes of massage could not only help people relax, but it could also boost oxytocin levels.

Research from supports this finding and expands on it, noting that oxytocin levels also increase in the person giving the massage. What does oxytocin do for you? Well, people often report less pain, stress, and anxiety post-massage.

Many also notice an improved mood and greater feelings of well-being. Research suggests that massage from a partner or other loved one may work just as well. Sharing your love and affection with the people who mean the most to you can help increase oxytocin in a few ways:.

Strong friendships can make a big difference in your emotional well-being. Kicking it with your pals can make for a good time, but it can also help you feel socially supported and less alone in the world. The good feelings you experience around your friends can help you feel more positive about your interactions, making you want to spend more time together.

The trust and affection you have for them also tends to increase when you share their company more often. Whether you make specific plans or simply enjoy hanging out, the more time you spend together, the stronger your bond will likely become.

For an added bonus, try doing something with a friend that neither of you has done before. Bonding over the unique experience may also trigger oxytocin release. A daily meditation practice can help reduce stress and anxiety, improve your mood, and help you feel more compassion toward yourself and others. These effects can go a long way toward increasing your sense of connection and bolstering your relationships with others. But you also target oxytocin production by focusing your meditation on someone you care about.

Loving-kindness meditation, also referred to as compassion meditation, involves directing thoughts of love, compassion, and goodwill toward someone in your life and sending thoughts of peace and wellness toward them.

New to meditation? Active or empathic listening is a basic principle of strong social interactions and relationships. Bonding and increasing feelings of connection, trust, and empathy can sometimes be as easy as really, truly listening to what someone has to say.

So, when your friend or partner wants to talk about something important, put down anything that might distract you, make eye contact, and give them your complete attention. This close interaction can trigger oxytocin release, helping you feel more connected to each other.

Research on chimpanzees suggests sharing food can increase oxytocin. It makes sense for humans, too — sharing food is a great way to bond. From magnocellular neurons within the PVN and SON oxytocinergic neurons project to the neurohypophysis wherefrom oxytocin is released into the circulation acting as a classical hormone, mediating uterine contraction during labor and milk ejection during breastfeeding Burbach et al.

However, oxytocin is also an important neurotransmitter within the brain. Parvocellular neurons from the PVN project to many important regulatory areas within the brain, e. Oxytocinergic neurons also reach the pineal gland, the cerebellum and the spinal cord Figure 1 Buijs, ; Buijs et al.

Thus oxytocin reaches several important areas in the central nervous system CNS , which are involved in the regulation of social interactive behaviors, fear, aggression perception of pain, calm, wellbeing, and stress reactions by modulating the activity of the HPA-axis and the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. Oxytocin can also be released from dendrites of the oxytocinergic neurons in the SON and PVN and then by diffusion and volume transmission reach distant locations in the brain to induce oxytocin mediated effects.

For example such effects might occur when oxytocin is released in high amounts as, e. During these occasions high amounts of oxytocin is released in parallel both into the periphery and within the CNS Keverne and Kendrick, Figure 1. Schematic illustration of how oxytocinergic neurons within the PVN project to some important regulatory areas in the CNS. Oxytocin may act via one or several of these different mechanisms at the same time and also different combinations of oxytocin mediated effects might be activated.

In this way separate oxytocin effects are integrated into broader effect patterns. As will be described in more detail below, when oxytocin release is induced by low intensity somatosensory stimulation, the anti-stress effect pattern becomes particularly prominent. The amount of oxytocin receptors and their binding properties are of course also of fundamental importance for the effects of oxytocin.

Here both sex steroids and glucocorticoids play an important role since they both have the capacity to influence the expression of oxytocin receptors as well as the binding of oxytocin to receptors in the brain Schumacher et al. Not all oxytocin-mediated effects are blocked by antagonists directed toward the uterine type of oxytocin receptor, e. The reason is that oxytocin is metabolized and degraded into several smaller cyclic and linear oxytocin fragments de Wied et al.

A C-terminal fragment has been linked to calming, anti-stress, and growth promoting effects of oxytocin Petersson et al. Variants of the oxytocin receptor gene have been demonstrated, some of which have been associated with different capabilities to recognize facial expression Kumsta and Heinrichs, Some variants of the oxytocin receptor gene are also more prevalent in individuals with schizophrenia and autism Montag et al.

The half-life of oxytocin in the circulation of humans is 30 min De Groot et al. A similar half-life has been demonstrated in the cerebrospinal fluid, but might be even longer in different parts of the brain Jones and Robinson, The half-life of the oxytocin fragments is not known, but may be longer than that of the mother molecule. Oxytocin may also be transported across the BBB by specific carrier proteins Jones and Robinson, Oxytocin exerts some of its actions by modulating the function of other signaling systems.

It, e. As will be discussed in detail below, the effect of oxytocin to inhibit the activity of noradrenergic neurons in the CNS is of great importance for the anti-stress effects induced by oxytocin. Administration of oxytocin gives rise to many different effects. Different kinds of social interactions are promoted including mother—infant interaction and bonding between mother and infant Keverne and Kendrick, Oxytocin may also induce powerful anti-stress effects by reducing the activity of the HPA-axis and of some aspects of the sympathetic nervous system, for example the activity of the cardiovascular system may be decreased.

It should be noted that when oxytocin is released by threatening situations or an unfamiliar environment it may induce powerful protective and aggressive effects, which are also linked to an increased activity in the HPA axis and of the sympathetic nervous system Bosch et al.

When oxytocin is administered repeatedly [subcutaneously SC or intracerebroventricularly ICV ] long-term effects are induced. For example blood pressure and cortisol levels are decreased and pain threshold as well as the release of gastrointestinal hormones such as insulin is increased for several weeks after the last administration of oxytocin Petersson et al. These sustained effects are due to the fact that oxytocin influences the production of neurotransmitters or the function of their receptors in a long-term way.

Repeated administration of oxytocin, e. The long term anti-stress effects caused by repeated exposure to oxytocin are linked to a changed function of mineralocorticoid receptors MR and glucocorticoid receptors GR in the hippocampus, to decreased production of corticotrophin releasing factor CRF in the PVN, but above all to a decreased function of central noradrenergic transmission by an increased function of inhibitory alpha 2-adrenoreceptors.

Such receptors, located presynaptically on noradrenergic neurons emanating from the LC and NTS, exert an inhibitory function on the release of noradrenaline, which leads to decreased stress levels and reactivity to stress Petersson et al.

Other effects of repeated oxytocin administration are increased rates of learning and wound healing Petersson et al. If oxytocin is given repeatedly to rats in the postnatal period, an effect pattern similar to the one seen in adult rats is induced, the difference being that the effects might become even life-long.

A decrease in blood pressure, in levels of corticosterone and an increase in nociceptive thresholds may be seen.

In addition the function of central alpha 2-adrenoreceptors is increased Sohlstrom et al. In humans, intranasal administration of oxytocin has been shown to stimulate certain aspects of social interaction, e. Also the reactivity of the amygdala may decrease, thereby reducing fear and facilitating friendly social interactions Domes et al.

It also causes anxiolytic and anti-stress effects Heinrichs et al. Oxytocin has also been shown to cause wellbeing and to decrease the experience of pain Ohlsson et al. In other clinical trials oxytocin has, e.

It has also been shown to facilitate withdrawal from alcohol Pedersen et al. It is of importance to mention that the effect patterns induced by repeated administration of oxytocin by nasal, by ICV, SC, intravenous IV injections or by stimulation of endogenous oxytocin release via stimulation of sensory nerves are not always the same.

For example, repeated administration of oxytocin spray to mice has been shown to result in down regulation of oxytocin receptors and to impairments in behavioral development in mice Bales et al. Most likely oxytocin released in response to repeated stimulation of sensory nerves results in a more physiological and sustainable effect pattern than does any form of repeated pharmacological administration of oxytocin.

The release of oxytocin can be stimulated by hormones such as estrogen. In addition oxytocin can be released in response to various types of sensory stimulation. When oxytocin is released in response to pain and stressful stimuli it may play a role in certain types of stress, and thereby it may also act to dampen stress reactions Neumann, The non-noxious type of somatosensory stimulation is of particular importance for the hypothesis presented in this article, i. The most well-known situations, which are related to oxytocin release, are labor and breastfeeding, when oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection respectively.

Oxytocin can, however, also be released following activation of other sensory nerves originating from, e. Figure 2. Figure 3. Schematic illustration showing how afferent nerves from different parts of the body stimulate oxytocin release.

Low intensity non-noxious stimulation of somatosensory nerves in conscious or unconscious rats, results in increased social behavior, increased pain threshold, profound anti-stress effects, such as a decrease in blood pressure and in cortisol levels. In addition the function of the gastrointestinal tract is increased Araki et al. The exact nature of sensory nerves, which mediate the effects of non-noxious stimulation, is not known. Myelinated somatosensory fibers mediating the sense of touch may be involved, but a more likely candidate to this effect is the unmyelinated CT fiber afferents.

Oxytocin is not only released into the circulation, but also into the brain. In fact many of the physiological effects induced by non-noxious sensory stimulation are partly mediated by oxytocin. The increase of pain threshold induced by certain types of non-noxious sensory stimulation, e. These fibers are, as described above, involved in the control of autonomic nervous tone. Also many physiological effects induced in the brainstem area brainstem reflexes in response to sensory stimulation, are modulated by oxytocinergic fibers, which originate in the PVN and project to the NTS.

The oxytocin released in the NTS exerts a further important effect. As mentioned above, all types of sensory stimulation, involved in oxytocin release, relay in the NTS. Oxytocin released into the NTS from nerves originating in the PVN facilitates the transmission of sensory neurons in the NTS, which are associated with oxytocin release. In this way a feed-forward stimulation of the oxytocin release, induced by sensory stimulation, is provided Burbach et al.

Finally oxytocin, in particular after repeated administration, stimulates presynaptic alpha 2-adrenoreceptors on noradrenergic neurons originating in the NTS and LC. The firing of the neurons originating in the LC is decreased by repeated oxytocin administration.

In addition administration of oxytocin increases the amount of alpha 2-adrenoreceptors in some other areas of the brain, such as the hypothalamus, the amygdala and the NTS Petersson et al. As the alpha 2-adrenoreceptors inhibit the function of the noradrenergic neurons, which are linked to stress reactions, the oxytocin mediated increase in alpha 2-adrenoreceptor function will result in decreased stress levels and in decreased reactivity to stress.

In addition the oxytocin released into the brainstem by non-noxious sensory stimulation will potentiate actions of local brainstem reflexes and also facilitate the function of sensory neurons mediating oxytocin release in the NTS for references see above. Oxytocin has the capacity to stimulate its own release in several ways. As oxytocin is released from the dendrites of the oxytocin producing cells, a local feed forward system is activated Ludwig and Leng, There is accumulating evidence that also circulating oxytocin can stimulate oxytocin release from the SON and PVN by activation of oxytocin receptors located on peripheral sensory nerves, such as the pelvic and the hypogastric nerves Jonas et al.

In addition oxytocin, released from the oxytocinergic neurons projecting to the NTS, may via activation of oxytocin receptors located on sensory neurons which project to the NTS, facilitate the function of these neurons thereby increasing oxytocin release Burbach et al.

It is well established that the HPA-axis regulates the secretion of cortisol from the adrenal glands. First CRF, produced in and released from neurons within the PVN of the hypothalamus, stimulates the secretion of ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone from the anterior pituitary into the circulation.

Circulating ACTH in turn stimulates cortisol secretion from the adrenal glands. The activity of the noradrenergic neurons in the LC is influenced by the amygdala-hippocampal systems and the activity of the noradrenergic neurons emanating from the NTS by afferent nerves mediating noxious stimuli Araki et al. When the amygdala-hippocampal system is activated in response to a stressor, neurons, which project from the amygdala to the LC, are activated.

Van Bockstaele et al. Consequently the noradrenergic neurons in the LC are activated and noradrenaline is released, e. Stimulation of sensory nerves in response to dangerous or noxious sensory stimuli represents an alternative way by which the CRF secretion in the PVN and thereby the HPA-axis can be activated. In this situation noradrenergic neurons emanating in the NTS are activated by the noxious sensory stimulation and then noradrenaline released from these neurons, in turn stimulates the release of CRF Araki et al.

Oxytocin may antagonize the activity of the stress axis in multiple ways. It is well established that oxytocin released from nerves within the hypothalamus and in the anterior pituitary inhibits CRF and ACTH secretion respectively and that circulating oxytocin may inhibit cortisol secretion directly from the adrenals Stachowiak et al.

Oxytocin may be released to antagonize stress reactions in three principally different ways:. Oxytocin is released in response to pleasant mental experiences. Such a release of oxytocin may, e. As oxytocin is released from neurons emanating in the PVN stress reactivity will be dampened in multiple ways.

The activity in the HPA-axis will be reduced by oxytocin according to the pattern described above. In addition, as oxytocin is released from neurons within the amygdala, the reactivity to fear and stress is dampened and consequently the activity of neurons that project from the amygdala to the LC will be decreased see above. As a consequence of a less intense stimulation of the function in the LC, the release of noradrenaline from the noradrenergic neurons emanating in the LC declines.

Also the activity in other areas involved in stress regulation and which are receiving noradrenergic projections from the LC will be decreased. The activity in the LC and NTS will of course also be decreased by oxytocinergic neurons projecting directly to these areas. Oxytocin is also released in response to activation of somatosensory nerves, which mediate non-painful and pleasant non-noxious information, e.

Oxytocin may in response to non-noxious stimulation be released into the hypothalamus to reduce the activity in the HPA-axis and into the amygdala to decrease the reaction to stress and fear and thereby the activity of the noradrenergic neurons in the LC, which control the activity of the HPA axis.

In addition, oxytocin released from neurons projecting from the PVN to the LC and NTS in the brainstem, may decrease stress reactions by reducing the activity in the stress related noradrenergic neurons emanating from these nuclei.

The effect of oxytocin released from the neurons that project from the PVN to the NTS involves activation of alpha 2-adrenoreceptors, which inhibit the function of the noradrenergic neurons in the LC and NTS.

In this way the secretion of CRF in the hypothalamus and the activity of the HPA- axis are further decreased, as described in detail above. Taken together oxytocin release induced by non-noxious somatosensory stimulation inhibits stress by direct actions in the amygdala, the hypothalamus, the LC and the NTS.

In addition, oxytocin may also be released by mental and sensory stimuli that are perceived as stressful. In this case oxytocin is activated in parallel with the stress system and the role of oxytocin in these situations may be to dampen stress responses and facilitate coping behaviors Neumann, Figure 4.

Schematic illustration of different effects of oxytocin released from parvocellular neurons in the brainstem. Non-noxious stimulation of afferent sensory nerves results in release of oxytocin from the PVN. Noxious and non-noxious stimulation of afferent sensory nerves result in activation of sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord autonomic centra, AC.

Oxytocin released from oxytocinergic neurons originating from the PVN and projecting to areas in the brainstem and spinal cord involved in the control of autonomic nervous tone e. In addition it reinforces and facilitates effects caused by shorter brain stem projections. In this way hypothalamic reflexes controls and modulates the activity of the shorter brainstem reflexes. Oxytocin released from oxytocinergic neurons originating from the PVN and projecting to the NTS facilitates the function of afferent neurons involved in the release of oxytocin, thereby facilitating oxytocin release.

It also activates alpha 2-adrenoceptors on noradrenergic fibers innervating CRF neurons in the PVN, thereby decreasing stress reactivity. In this way non-noxious somatosensory stimulation promotes oxytocin release and oxytocin mediated effects, but counteracts CRF and VP linked effects. The oxytocin release caused by non-noxious somatosensory stimulation gives rise to particularly pronounced anti-stress effects because:.

As mentioned above it is well known that oxytocin is released during labor and breastfeeding to induce uterine contractions and milk ejection. Still the concomitant effect pattern differs between the two situations. During labor the pulsatile oxytocin release is associated with high stress levels and cortisol levels are elevated and blood pressure is high in order to make the hard work of labor and uterine contractions possible. During breastfeeding, on the other hand, cortisol and blood pressure fall in response to each suckling episode Nissen et al.

Oxytocin is also released into the brain during labor and breastfeeding. Oxytocin thereby induces pain relief during labor and also helps to adapt the mothers to the role of motherhood by increasing social skills and by decreasing anxiety Nissen et al. Research has shown that mothers, who have breastfed for several weeks have lower basal, systolic and diastolic, blood pressure Jonas et al.

They are also calmer and more socially inclined Nissen et al. These long-term adaptive changes are most likely induced by a changed function in other signaling systems as a consequence of the repeated exposure to endogenous oxytocin that occurs during breastfeeding.

As mentioned above repeated administration of oxytocin changes the function of several types of signaling systems in the brain in a long-term way. The findings of a reduced risk for certain kinds of cardiovascular disease and also of diabetes type 2 many years after the end of breastfeeding in mothers who have breastfed several children for long periods of time supports the existence of a link between repeated exposure to endogenous oxytocin and long-term anti-stress and health promoting effects Lee et al.

An increase in the function of alpha 2-adrenoreceptors may play a pivotal role in these health promoting effects by decreasing stress levels and stress sensitivity.

Oxytocin cannot only be released by the suckling stimulus but also by stimulation of cutaneous nerves, As mentioned previously oxytocin has in experiments performed on rats been demonstrated to be released in response to several types of non-noxious sensory stimulation, such as touch, massage, stroking, warm temperature, and low intensity electrical stimulation.

Stimulation of cutaneous sensory nerves is an important and common aspect of many types relationships, e. Therefore oxytocin release and oxytocin mediated effects caused by pleasant sensory stimulation should play an important role in all these types of relationships.

The release of oxytocin and the pattern of oxytocin mediated effects induced during skin-to-skin contact between mother and infant after birth will be described in some detail, as this type of interaction could be regarded as archetypal representation of interactions between humans or between humans and animals, involving close physical contact. Oxytocin is for example released into the maternal circulation in response to skin-to-skin contact between mother and infant immediately after birth.

The oxytocin pulses induced by skin-to-skin contact are more long lasting than those observed during labor and breastfeeding. The maternal release of oxytocin is induced by activation of sensory nerves in the skin, which are activated by touch, warmth, and stroking in connection with skin-to-skin contact with the baby and also by massage-like hand movements performed by the baby.

Nissen et al. The skin-to-skin contact between mother and infant after birth is linked to an increase in maternal, vocal and tactile interaction with the child. In addition the mother looks and smiles more at the baby Velandia et al. At the same time anti-stress effects are induced as the mother becomes calmer and cortisol levels drop Handlin et al.

The newborn infant produces its own oxytocin. Skin-to-skin contact after birth is in newborns, like in the mother, associated with increased social interaction.

The newborns perform a spontaneous breast seeking behavior breast crawling and they vocalize more than infants not being allowed skin-to-skin contact.

In addition they become calmer and stop crying Widstrom et al. Powerful anti-stress effects are induced; cortisol levels fall, pulse rate becomes regularized and skin temperature increases as a sign of decreased sympathetic nervous tone Bystrova et al. Birth is a stressful event and high stress levels are of importance for the baby during birth and also for some postnatal, physiological adaptations to occur.

It is of equal importance to dampen the high stress levels as soon as possible after birth. This conversion from a state of stress to a state of calm is induced in a natural way by the skin-to-skin contact with the mother immediately after birth and in this way skin-to-skin contact after birth serves to reverse the stress of being born Bystrova et al.

The high levels of oxytocin, which are induced during labor, are of importance for oxytocin release and oxytocin mediated effects caused by skin-to-skin contact and suckling after birth. This is demonstrated by the finding that skin-to-skin contact and suckling fail to induce any oxytocin release in mothers who have been subjected to an elective Cesarean Section, because these mothers have not been exposed to oxytocin release during labor Velandia, These mothers do not have any oxytocin release since there was no labor.

As described in detail above, oxytocin released from the PVN into the NTS increases the release of oxytocin, in response to somatosensory stimulation, by facilitating the function of incoming sensory nerves involved in oxytocin release for references see above. If, however, these mothers are given an infusion of exogenous oxytocin after birth postpartum , the effect of skin-to-skin contact is restored and the mothers do release oxytocin in response to skin-to-skin contact and suckling Velandia et al.

Another consequence of elective Cesarean section is that the psychological maternal adaptations normally induced after labor, e. Oxytocin infusions postpartum, restore the maternal psychological adaptations Velandia, It is well known, since the work of Klaus and Kennell, that close contact between mothers and infants immediately after birth, i.

Both mothers and infants having had 2 h of skin-to-skin contact after birth were shown to interact better with each other and the infants were shown to handle stress better 1 year later, than did mothers and infants that were separated after birth. The immediate oxytocin promoted or facilitated effects on social interactive behaviors and stress reactivity that was induced during skin-to-skin after birth became sustained and expressed in a more developed or mature way 1 year later Bystrova et al.

Data from animal experiments support these findings and also extend the results from a mechanistic point of view. If newborn rats are exposed to extra sensory stimulation of the skin by intense maternal licking or by brushing , the animals become more social and less anxious and stressed as adults Francis et al. The physiological and behavioral changes induced by tactile stimulation in the newborn rats are associated with changes in the function of several transmitter systems.

The increased levels of social performance and the decreased levels of anxiety are linked to an increased amount of oxytocin receptors in the amygdala Francis et al. Reduced levels of CRF in the PVN of the hypothalamus and an increased number of alpha 2-adrenoreceptors in the NTS and the LC also contribute to the long-term anti-stress pattern induced by tactile stimulation in the newborn period.

The increased function of alpha 2-adrenoreceptors is caused by oxytocin released into the NTS and LC from oxytocinergic nerve fibers emanating from the PVN, which are activated in response to tactile stimulation. In this way, as described before, stress reactions are blunted because the activity of noradrenergic fibers originating in the NTS and LC is reduced. Interestingly, the more tactile stimulation rat pups had been exposed to postnatally, the higher the amount of alpha 2-adrenoreceptors were in the adults rats Caldji et al.

All the long-term effects described above, caused by tactile stimulation seems to be induced by early epigenetic programming Cameron et al. It is well known that early exposure to stress, during pregnancy or in early life, may lead to lifelong sensitivity to stress and stressors and also to an inhibition of social interactive behaviors Anacker et al.

This pattern is, e. The data described in this article suggests that also a partly opposite effect pattern exists, which is induced by non-noxious somatosensory stimulation. This pattern can be learnt or imprinted early in life and is linked to high levels of friendly social interaction and low stress reactivity. This system is linked to a moderate activity in the HPA-axis and in the sympathetic nervous system and in addition to a high activity in the parasympathetic nervous system.

The long-term effects of skin-to-skin contact described above, i. An interesting question is therefore, whether secure attachment is associated with a well-functioning oxytocinergic system?

If so, stimulation of oxytocin release in response to skin-to-skin contact or other types of closeness, especially if induced repeatedly and early in life, could be an important mechanism, through which secure attachment is developed. Further on just the thought of or the mental image of the mother may be enough to trigger oxytocin release in the child.

In conclusion the more closeness, physical as well as mental, a child receives the more the function of the oxytocin system will be stimulated. The findings in some studies of higher oxytocin levels in individuals with secure attachment than in those with insecure attachment support the role of a well-functioning oxytocin system in individuals with secure attachment Tops et al.

In addition administration of oxytocin spray has been demonstrated to enhance the experience of attachment security Buchheim et al. From the perspective of this article it is of particular interest that some individuals with insecure attachment do not only have lower levels of oxytocin than those with secure attachment, they also have an increased risk of developing certain symptoms and diseases.

Individuals having insecure attachment more often report high levels of anxiety, depression and stress than those who are securely attached for a review, see Julius et al. In addition they have an increased risk of pain and inflammation Davies et al.

For example women with insecure attachment more often have pain during labor and during intercourse dyspareunia; Granot et al.

As oxytocin released within the brain from nerves emanating from the PVN is involved not only in the regulation of social interaction and anxiety, but also of pain and inflammation, a low function in the oxytocinergic system could underlie or at least contribute to the expression of these symptoms in individuals with insecure attachment for references, see above.

In addition a disturbed function of the oxytocin system has been demonstrated in certain medical conditions, which may in fact to a certain extent overlap with insecure attachment. Low levels of oxytocin have, e. Also some pain syndromes such as fibromyalgia and recurrent abdominal pain in children are associated with low levels of oxytocin Alfven et al.

In addition, previous experience of traumatic events is associated with an increased incidence of low oxytocin levels or stress related reduction of oxytocin levels Pierrehumbert et al. It is, however, important to mention that low and high levels of oxytocin could not always be categorized as bad or good.

As peripheral oxytocin levels and also the effects of oxytocin are influenced by many different factors, other relationships also exist Bartz et al. For example, as will be described more in detail later in this chapter, oxytocin levels display two peaks during encounters with other individuals, one when meeting and approaching the other individual and one when being in close contact and receiving sensory stimulation by the other individual.

The first peak is linked to arousal and an increased activity in the stress axis and the second peak is linked to decreased stress levels Rehn et al. As mentioned above oxytocin levels may rise as a consequence of closeness between mothers and infants, and when they are bonded or attached to each other, oxytocin levels rise also when they just see, hear or even think of each other Swain et al.

A similar reaction takes place in adults as warm partner contact has been demonstrated to be linked to oxytocin release and anti-stress effects. In fact oxytocin may be released, when individuals of both sexes and all ages touch each other, given that the relationship is perceived as positive. Oxytocin may even be released by seeing, hearing or by merely thinking of the other beloved person Carter and Keverne, ; Grewen et al. In stable long-term relationships oxytocin levels may display a chronic rise and some studies show that basal oxytocin levels are higher in individuals who live together.

The high levels of oxytocin are most likely a consequence of cohabitation, but it can of course not be excluded that individuals who have high oxytocin levels more often choose to cohabitate than those with low oxytocin levels Humble et al.

Many studies demonstrate that the health profile of people, who live in good relationships, is better than for those who live alone. They, e. They have less infections and the risk for some types of cancer is reduced.

People who live in good relationships may even look younger and live longer than those, who live alone. It is however of importance to note that the relationship should be warm and of a good quality for these positive health consequences to develop. Relationships characterized by fear and distrust, may give rise to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in particular in women Seeman, ; Uchino and Garvey, ; Christenfeld and Gerin, ; Blom et al.

Sexual relationships are linked to oxytocin release. Data from both animals and humans demonstrate that large amounts of oxytocin are released in response to sexual activity both in females and males. In humans the peak of oxytocin seems to coincide with orgasm Carmichael et al. Oxytocin has been demonstrated to promote sexual functioning and has been shown to increase the drive for sex, to facilitate ejaculation and transport of eggs, and the experience of orgasm in both men and women.

In addition, oxytocin has been demonstrated to be linked to bonding between individuals induced by sex but also to the reduction of anxiety and increased wellbeing and calming induced by intercourse Carmichael et al. Long-term studies suggest that individuals with a good sex life are healthier and live longer, than those without it. It is likely, that the oxytocin release during sex contributes to the health promoting effects, but the effects could also be indirectly mediated by the strengthening of the relationship and of the bonding that is often the consequence of a good sex life Brody, Oxytocin levels peak significantly in both dog owners and dogs when they interact and in particular when the owner strokes and caresses her dog Odendaal and Meintjes, ; Miller et al.

When researchers study the effects of oxytocin, they use intravenous oxytocin or nasal sprays since oral oxytocin is destroyed in the digestive tract.

For this reason, when oxytocin is medically warranted, such as to improve contractions during labor or reduce bleeding after childbirth, it is given by injection or nasal spray. To produce noticeable effects in test subjects, Dr. Zak, who has studied oxytocin extensively, needed to spray three teaspoons worth of oxytocin up their noses! Based on the results of measuring oxytocin blood levels in test subjects, he has determined the following to be the best ways to increase oxytocin :.

To learn more from renowned oxytocin expert, Dr. While oxytocin supplements are not effective, there are a few supplements that provide nutrients needed for oxytocin synthesis. Sex, hugs, massages, and even cuddles with your pet can give you the warm glow of an oxytocin boost. It increases trust and empathy to help us form bonds with others.

Some say that if we all produced more oxytocin, the world would be a happier, more loving place. But as with most things involving brain chemistry, the answer is not that simple. What Is Oxytocin? What Does It Do? Oxytocin is a hormone normally created in an area of the brain called the hypothalamus. A quality brain supplement can make a big difference.

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You are depressed, anxious, or fearful. You overeat and crave sweet, high carbohydrate foods. You crave addictive substances. You can be angry and aggressive. Causes of Oxytocin Deficiency Oxytocin deficiency has been linked to numerous psychiatric disorders including autism, schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety disorders. In mentally healthy individuals, it can be brought on by too much stress.

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